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Conclusion I i

I !

At last! We have arrived at the stage where we can talk about machines. Much has been said already but a summary of the main types and a short discussion of the kinds of things they can do may help you to evaluate those that are available.

What types are there? There are constructed response machines in which the student writes his answer on a tape and compares it with the correct answer, which is exposed only when the student’s answer is covered with a plastic window (so he can’t change it after he sees the correct an- swer). A variation on this allows the student, after he has written his response, to uncover a clue, (at the same time covering his re- sponse with a window). At this point he may write a second re- sponse if he wishes to amend the first one. The answer may then be unmasked (at the same time covering the second response with the window), and both answers may then be compared with the correct answer.

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There are drill devices in which each item comes back again and again; but when the student answers an item correctly a pre- determined number of times, it drops out and does not reappear.

There are constructed response machines in which the student does not write the response but rather constructs his answer me- chanically by moving sliders.

There are multiple- choice linear devices which require the stu- dent to push buttons, punch holes in paper with a stylus, pull tabs, or type his answer on a keyboard, all of which immediately provide some knowledge of results (i. e., right or wrong).

There is a machine for branching programs which presents the program on a microfilm viewer. The alternatives are selected by a choice of push- buttons.

Finally, there is the computer oriented, self- organizing program for developing motor skills.

What will these machines provide? c First, they all provide an environment in which the learner is, to a greater or lesser degree, in control. He decides when “time is up” on a given item, he decides when he wants to know the correct

78 (from page 77)

answer. The knowledge that his mistakes will be recorded makes the control meaningful and motivates him to attend to the problem. From the teacher’s point of view, the recording of responses permits evaluating both the effectiveness of the program and the perform- ance of the individual student. Based on this record, the teacher may provide guidance or assistance as needed.

Second, because the machine is to a greater or lesser degree responsive to the student, it provides an environment in which out- side distractions are less noticeable. The student whose mind wan- ders during a lecture may miss an important point; a machine will not proceed unless the student is ready. The more attractive the learning situation, the more readily will students apply themselves to it. Motivational devices such as visible counters and timers, lights, and even buzzers are available on some machines.

Third, although the initial cost of a branching machine is high, the program is stored on microfilm and thus is less costly and re- quires far less storage space than the equivalent program in scram- bled book form.

Fourth, machines may add a dimension of interaction that could not be achieved in any other way. The self- organizing program represents a constant and highly sensitive interaction between stu- dent and machine in the learning of motor skills; designs are feas- ible that would allow similar treatment of verbal subject matter. A computer with an undistractable brain ready instantly to call forth any information in its memory bank could, on the basis of student response to test items, redirect the student to any number of alternate paths, depending on the background and even the tempera- ment of the student. Because a computer could time responses and compare them with all other responses, it could allow the student to compete with his own past performance, with his aspirations, or with other students. The machine could decide, on the basis of the time taken for each response, whether the student needs simpler steps or harder steps. It could, b y constant testing, prevent the stu- dent from stumbling through the program without really paying attention. These designs are still speculative, however, and will re- quire considerable research and improvement in programming tech- niques and skills before they can be realized.

How do we decide what kind of presmtation device to buy?

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First, decide what you want to teach and write out your teach- ing objectives in behavorial terms. That is, state your desired out- comes in terms of measurable behavior (“ to be able, in ten minutes or less, to extract the square root of a three- digit number, using only pencil and paper”) and avoid unmeasurable objectives (“ to under- stand how square root is extracted”).

Second, examine any available programs to see if they meet your stated instructional objectives.

Third, decide how much control is desirable in the self- instruc- tional situation.

Fourth, examine as many different program holders and ma- chines as you can. If an expensive machine doesn’t satisfy any more of your requirements than a simple program holder, then con- sider the inexpensive program holder. But remember that ‘cost alone is a false factor; if the machine you need happens to be ex- pensive, you will only waste money buying anything else.

Now, one last branch: Page 80 Self- instruction programs may be used not only for

present factual information but may be used to help the student develop positive attitudes toward a subject. Page 81 Self- instruction programs are fine for studying facts

but the task of guiding the student’s attitude forma- tion must be left to the real live teacher.

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Right you are! Books have been doing this for centuries--- even textbooks. What is a teacher for? A teacher is a self- organizing program with infinite possibilities for guiding and interacting, transmitting attitudes, re- directing or orienting the student. The fewer machine jobs the teacher has to do, the more time will be available for the student to exploit and benefit from this human skill. After all, it has been said that any teacher who can be replaced by a machine, probably ought to be!

/ entation &vice~ mR 6 - SELF- TEST / . What four steps must be taken before selectmg any pres- I This is the end of the program. I

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You don’t really believe that, do you? Have you never been excited over something that you’ve read? Doesn’t a good textbook present the facts and inspire an attitude?

Remember, a good program is built by a good teacher. I Please return to page 79 and select

the other alternative. I

Slide- a- Mask, Dyna- Slide Co., Chicago

Vertimask. Dyna- Slide CO., Chicago

Atronic Portable Tag. General Atronics Corpo- ration, Rala Cynwyd, Pa.

The Atronic Tag in use -

83

84 Autoscore, Astra Corporation, New London, Conn.

Multiple- Choice Machine, Rheem- Califone Corporation, Ilollywood, CaliJ.

TM- 3 Discoverer, BillereCt Company, Anaheim, Calif.

Didak 501, Rheen- Califone Corporation, Hollywood, Calif.

‘* ;’ Min/ Max, Teaching Materi& Corporation, New York City.

Foringer 2002, Programmed Teaching Aids Inc., Arlington, Va.

Ferster Tutor, Programmed Teaching Aids Inc., Arlington, Va.

Concept- o- Graph, Teaching Machines and Program Developers, Rochester, N. Y.

Atronic Tutor. General Atronics Corporation. Hala Cynwyd. Pa.

!Martron, Kheem- Califone Corporation. llollywood, Calif.

Mark I Design Golela,

Mark II Autotutor, Western Design and Electronics, Coleta. Calif.

Autotutor, Western and Electronics, Calif.